Malaysia is rapidly developing towards being an industrial country

Chapter 1Introduction1.0 BackgroundMalaysia is quickly developing towards being an industrial state. Many industries such as heavy and light industries, little and average industries and backyard industries have been turning in the last 10 old ages. The addition in industrial and agricultural activities has created a new demand in lodging, urbanisation, transit and medicine as the population addition. All these will lend to environmental jobs particularly pollution due to the accretion of risky chemicals such as heavy metals in environment. Environmental pollution has become a major issue that requires immediate action as it may effects human wellness. Pollution can take many signifiers such as H2O and air that we breathe. Urbanization in developed and development state, civilisation and industrialisation make the state of affairs of the environment worsened as such that there is no more safe topographic point to populate. From the chemical science lexicon, pollution can be define as an unwanted alteration in the physical, chemical, or biological features of the natural environment, brought about by adult male ‘s activities. It may be harmful to human or non living things. Basically there are two chief categories of pollutants which are biodegradable which means it can be rendered harmless by natural procedures and need hence do no lasting injury if adequately dispersed or treated such as sewerage. Another type is nonbiodegradable which can non be break uping by microbic activity. For illustration heavy metals suc h as lead, DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons used as pesticides, which finally accumulate in the environment and may be concentrated in nutrient ironss. Pollution besides can be describes as the debut of foreign substances into the biosphere. It may impact the dirt, rivers, seas, or the ambiance. The pollutants that are released from the anthropogenetic activities such as agricultural industries, unfastened combustion, solid waste disposal, sewerage intervention workss and transit produce risky and toxicant pollutants such as SO2, NOx, heavy metals and hydrocarbon compounds that effects non merely human but besides both workss and animate beings that can do decease. Some of these risky pollutants find their manner into the human system through the nutrient web. They may undergo biotransformation, metamorphosis and excreted without the hazard of toxicity depending on the chemical features of the compound and the dosage in human organic structure. However, some of the pollutants resist chemical and biological transmutation and accumulate in the tissues, including the nervousnesss, to do toxicity. The inauspicious effects of these pollu tants on the nervousnesss system give rise to neurotoxicity. Rana et al. , ( 2004 ) ; Katranitsas et al. , ( 2003 ) found that there is grounds that increasing exposure to toxic elements in Marine and tellurian beings is holding inauspicious toxicological effects. Therefore heavy metals pollution become serious issues that must been concerned. Unlike other pollutants such as crude oil hydrocarbons and domestic and municipal litter which may visibly construct up in the environment, hint metals in the environment may roll up unnoticed to toxic degrees. By and large, human wellness jobs associated with hint metal taint have been well-highlighted in the literature. In malice of the comparatively low degree of industrial activity in less developed parts there is however a high potency of toxic heavy metal pollution. The distribution of metals in the environment is a consequence of natural procedures ( vents, eroding, spring H2O, bacterial activity ) and anthropogenetic activities ( fossil fuel burning, industrial and agricultural procedures ) ( Florea and Busselberg, 2006 ) . Heavy metals such as arsenic lead, Cu, Cd, or Zn are released from the Earth ‘s crust into the environment through anthropogenetic beginnings such as non-ferrous metal industry or non-renewable energy ingestion. These substances can do major harm to human wellness or to ecosystem stableness even at low concentrations in dirts. To get the better of this issue, many states have taken legion enterprises particularly the developed state. For illustration, in 2001 the European Union council signed the 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution on Heavy Metals ( Europa, 2007 ) . Therefore there are many methods to measure and measure the presence of these substances. One of them is biological used. The application of biological signifiers as the indexs is the best ways to measure the environmental status. Harmonizing to ( Szczepaniak and Biziuk, 2003 ; Bargagli, 1998 ) , in order to observe, measure and minimise the effects, there has been an accent in the usage of natural bioindicators to supervise atmospheric quality in both urban and rural environments. Examples of bioindicators are lichens, fish, and mosses. One of the bioindicators that can be used is lichens. Lichens are widely known as an first-class index to measure our environment. Lichens drama importance functions to forest communities. Lichens represent a rare beginning of readily digestible nutrient at all times of twelvemonth and in diverse environments due to their ability to last in utmost clime status. More by and large, lichens act as innovator species in waste or disturbed environments ; their growing on stone surfaces is one of the primary phases of dirt formation in such environments ( Brakenhielm, 1998 ; Cooper, 1953 in Dawson, 2008 ) . Lichens are little, non-vascular workss dwelling of a fungus and an alga turning together in one tissue. Normally lichens are found on the bark of trees, or the caribou lichens turning on the land, but many other species grow on stones, fencings, roofs, gravestones, and other objects. The feature of lichen that sensitive to the alterations of the surrounding makes them as an first-class bioindicators and biomonitors for air pollution, particularly sulfur dioxide pollution, since they derive their H2O and indispensable foods chiefly from the ambiance instead than from the dirt. A batch of surveies towards lichens had been done related to pollution particularly air pollution in most Europen states and North America Asia. During the period 1973-1988, about 1500 documents were published on the effects of air pollution on lichens Richardson ( 1988 ) cited in Ahmadjian ( 1993 ) , and many general reappraisals of lichens and air pollution have been compiled ( Ahmadjian, 1993 ) . The statute law about air quality that they made has been base on ballss through out the states particularly in developing states where air pollution is bad. In Malaysia, several surveies has been conducted ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) to find the heavy metals pollution degree utilizing lichen at difference topographic points. From the research, they found out that the sensitiveness of lichens towards heavy metals vary from each species. Most of species of lichen have a broad geographical distribution, which allows for a survey of pollution covering broad countries and its high capacity to r oll up metals ( Burton, 1986 ) . Hutchinson et al. , ( 1996 ) stated that lichens do non hold seasonal fluctuations and therefore accretion of pollutants can happen all year-round. Lichens and mosses normally have considerable length of service, which led to their usage as long-run planimeters of atmospheric deposition ( Sloof, 1993 ) . The benefits of utilizing lichens as quantitative biological proctors of air metal deposition comparison to conventional air trying techniques rise from that lichens are present in most tellurian home grounds, are perennial, cheap and easy reproduced ( Baffi et al. , 2002 ) .1.1 Problem statementNowadays the degree of heavy metals in the environment increasing twenty-four hours by twenty-four hours as the universe becomes much more developed. This is because the uncontrolled released of heavy metals leads to the pollution due to the inordinate anthropogenetic activities. The uninterrupted burden of heavy metals into inland and coastal H2O make the st ate of affairs worsens. Anthropogenetic activities such as excavation, smelting and agribusiness have locally increased the degrees of heavy metals such as Cd ( Cd ) , Cu ( Cu ) , Cr ( Cr ) , lead ( Pb ) , arsenic ( As ) and nickel ( Ni ) in dirt up to unsafe degrees for workss, animate beings and human existences. Although with the wood around us, the position of heavy metals level rather important as the consequence of human day-to-day activities, heavy population country near the wood and besides an increasing of the transit. These activities give inauspicious consequence to the life being as they enter into the environment. Other than that the ordinances provided by Malayan authorities which is the Environmental Quality Act 1974 by Department of Environment, still non to the full been forced due to the engagement other parties such as local authorization to take action when the degree of pollutants exceed the standard given particularly in coastal country. This is due to the dif ferent section have different duties. Nevertheless these parties can be work together to make a better life. Meanwhile due to the deficiency of surveies towards the lichens in our state, the informations obtained can assist the local authorization in determination devising procedure therefore maintained the quality. Besides that, it would assist to do an appraisal about the environmental status and possibly to better environmental quality position.1.2 ObjectiveThis survey was carried out in order to accomplish as the followerss:To quantify the heavy metals present in lichens.To measure the degree of heavy metals in lichens.To set up the correlativity of heavy metals pollutants in lichens with the environing environment.1.3 Significant of surveyBy cognizing that different species has different sensitiveness towards heavy metals, it allow breaking understanding about the sensitiveness of lichens towards heavy metals at environing environment. The presence or absences of species in cou ntries can give better understanding about the sensitiveness of lichens towards the pollutants. The information obtained besides can be used to measure the toxicology effects non merely to the lichens but besides on homo. Heavy metals can really toxic if the degree of the pollutants higher than the limited given. The informations besides can make the distribution forms of lichens at that topographic point. The pollution degree and position topographic point besides can be determined. This survey provides a mention record for carry oning farther biomonitoring surveies.1.4 Thesis organisationThe finding of heavy metals in lichens as bioindicators is a thesis based on old research in different trying location. Overall, this thesis consists of five chapters which are to help in understanding and easiness to form through authorship procedure. The chapters in this thesis have been forming as follows: Chapter 2 by and large discuss about the used on lichens as bioindicators. In this chapter, it besides has detailed account on the morphology of lichens that play of import function in accumulate heavy metals. It besides include the history on the scientific research on lichens, the important function on absorb the heavy metals and the effects of air pollution and metal pollution towards lichens. Chapter 3 is more concentrating on research methodological analysis. In this portion, it is divided into three parts which are the description on country of survey, trying aggregation and in conclusion laboratory analysis which is the process to find heavy metals utilizing Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometer ( ICP-MS ) . Chapter 4 is concentrating on the consequences obtained and treatment. In this chapter, it discuss about the informations obtained after analyze by ICP-MS. It besides include the statistical tools to analyse the preciseness of the informations obtain in order to hold a good information. It besides states the consequences and the informations reading between the samples. Chapter 5 is the last chapter which is the decision. In this portion, it concludes for the whole chapter in the thesis. It related on the aim of the survey including the recommendation to better the research on lichens.Chapter 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 BioindicatorsBioindicators, besides known as biomarkers, are tools that used in ecology, physiology, environmental microbiology and other subjects, to observe strain and other environmental conditions environing beings. USEPA stated that biological index species are alone environmental indexs as they offer a signal of the biological status in a watershed as they reveal the pollution position from clip to clip. The presence of this species can give an early warning of pollution or debasement in an ecosystem every bit good as aid prolong critical resources. Bioindicators differ from biomonitoring. Bioindicators are really groups or types of biological resources that can be used for designation and qualitative finding of homo generated enviro nmental factors Tonneijk and Posthumus ( 1987 ) cited in Conti and Cecchetti ( 2001 ) while biomonitors are being chiefly used for the quatitative finding of and can be classified as being sensitive or accumulative ( Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Bioindicators are divided into two types. First, accretion indexs which are shop pollutants without any apparent alterations in their metamorphosis. Another one is response indexs which is react with cell alterations or seeable symptoms of harm when taking up even little sums of risky substances. The application of bioindicators in measuring air pollution is much cheaper compared with other methods as Fuga et al. , ( 2008 ) noted that beside low cost, they besides easy for sampling, and the possibility of supervising broad countries. The application of workss as bioindicators has been conducted for many old ages to observe environmental alterations ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) . Harmonizing to Chandra and Sinha ( 2000 ) workss are extremely effectual and sensitive tools for finding and foretelling environmental emphasiss. Mosss, lichens and Fungis are the illustrations type of workss that normally used to bespeak the environmental alterations. However a lichen species was more resilient than a moss species in two exposure experiments look intoing hint metal consumption affecting grafts into urban environments ( Tretiach et al. , 2007 ) .2.2 LichensLichens consists of a fungus, known as the mycobiont, and a photosynthetic being, a green alga or blue-green algae species, the photobiont. Both of them are symbiosis as they rely each other where the algae and fungi give benefits each other ( Hawksworth and Rose, 1976 ) . The symbiotic action between the mycobiont ( -s ) and the photobiont ( -s ) , signifier thallus which the organic structure of lichens through a procedure of symbiogenesis ( Margulis and Barreno, 2003 ) are stable â€Å"micro-ecosystems† as a consequence mutualism procedure make these non-linear belongingss to be peculiarly effectual ‘early warning indexs ‘ of alterations dues to the impact of worlds on ecosystems ( Barreno, 2003 ) . Poikolainen ( 2004 ) stated that the fungous constituent normally an Ascomycetes fungus, and a green alga ( Chlorophyceae ) and/or bluish green alga ( Cyanobacteriae ) is the algal constituent. About 19 % of all Fungis are lichenized ( Lutzoni et al. , 2001 ; Hawksworth et al. , 1995 ) . More than 98 % of lichenized fungous species belong to phylum Ascomycota, others are from orders of phylum Basidiomycota and some to Mitosporic Fungi ( Hawksworth et al. , 1995 ; Tehler, 1996 ) . Most of the photobiont spouse is form by green alga ( Chlorophyta ; Lewis and McCourt, 2004 ) , merely approximately 10 % with blue-green algae, and 3 % with both green alga and blue-green algae ( Hawksworth et al. , 1995 ; Honegger, 1996 ) . The fungous constituent is responsible for taking up H2O and minerals, and the algal constituent, which grows in the center of the fungous mycelia, for photosynthesis in order to feed both spouses as it has chlorophyll that is able to devour sunshine, produce indispensable foods. Most lichen species obtain their foods from moisture and dry deposition ( Garty, 1993 ) . Some mycobionts can besides alter their photosynthesizing spouse from green alga to cyanobacterium and frailty versa and this leads to alterations in thallus morphology ( Oksanen, 2006 ) . This behaviour was suggested to be due to an environmental version and related to ecological compatibility of the photobiont ( Honegger, 1996 ; Stenroos et Al, 2003 ) . The categorization of lichens depends on thallus construction. There are three growing signifiers of lichens which are Crustose ( crusty ) , foliaceous ( leafy ) and fructicose ( shrubby ) ( Swinscow and Krog, 1988 ) . Growth form irregular the grade of physical contact and orientation of the lichen with its substrate every bit good as the sum of uninterrupted surface country exposed to airborne deposition therefore it should hold a direct impact on both the interception and consumption of airborne and substrate available elements by lichens ( Samuel et al, 2002 ) . Basically lichens can be found in tellurian home grounds, although a few can last invariably below the surface of H2O, such as Peltigera hydrothyria. They can populate on bark ( epiphytic ) , stones ( epilithic ) , or dirt ( terricolous ) and can even turn within the upper part of stones ( endolithic ) , peculiarly in exposed limestones and sandstones. In the Torrid Zones they can besides colonise foliages ( foliicolous ) ( Nash, 2008 ) . Lichens frequently grow in home grounds with utmost visible radiation, waterlessness, or temperature, which are less favourable or unsuitable for higher workss ( Vrablikova et al. , 2006 ) . Although lichens are attached to the bark or perforate a short distance, they are non parasite which is non come ining the inner bark where nutrient is transported, and therefore do non devour the tree of nutriment. Lichens depend on mineral foods from moisture and dry deposition on the works surface in the signifier of soluble salts and atoms, for their growing and metamorphosis ( Loppi and Pirintsos, 2003 ) . Lichens can widen the utmost status, slow-growing, beings that maintain a reasonably unvarying morphology in clip and are extremely dependent on the environing for foods ( Loppi and Pirintsos, 2003 ) . Several research workers such as Chiarenzelli et Al. ( 1997 ) have studied the accretion of heavy metals in Arctic tundra ecosystem at the Otter Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada.2.2 Lichens as bioindicatorsSince lichens are the most widely used biomonitors in tellurian environments ( Nimis et al. , 2002 ) , therefore they can observe and supervise a tonss of pollutants such as SO2, HF, metals, high N deposition, organic pollutants and radionuclides. Most surveies utilizing lichens as index species of air pollution peculiarly acerb rain, fertilisers, sulfur and N oxides, and metals, has been documented in 1000s of scientific documents ( Henderson, 2000 ) . Hawksworth and Rose ( 1976 ) reported that in the early 1860 ‘s lichens were recognized as possible indexs of air pollution in Britain and Europe. Since so, lichens have played outstanding functions in air pollution surveies throughout the universe because of their sensitiveness to different gaseous pollutants, peculiarly sulfur dioxide. More than a century ago William Nylander ( 1866 ) , a European scientist, found that lichens in the countryside around Paris were non found inside the metropolis. He investigated the state of affairs and found out that the lichens had been quickly decreasing, killed by pollutants. Since of those findings, an extended research have been conducted in many countries ( Barkman, 1958 ; De Wit, 1976 ; Hawksworth, 1971 ) cited in Wolterbeek et al. , ( 2003 ) . Other than that, several researches have studied the relationship between lichens and hint elements in different geographic country ( Loppi and Bonini, 2000 ; Garty, 2001 ; Carreras and Pignata, 2002 ; Yenisoy-Karakas and Tuncel, 2004 ; Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ; Bergamaschi et al. , 2004 ) . Hundreds of surveies have been published on the effects of sulfur dioxide, N compounds, ozone, heavy metals and other atmospheric pollutants on the morphology and physiology of lichens since the 1950 ‘s ( Richardson, 1992 ; Garty, 2000 ) . These surveies have chiefly been experimental. Lichens have besides been employed among other things as accretion indexs of heavy metals ( Freitas, 1994 ) every bit good as sulfur and N compounds ( Sochting, 1995 ) derived from industrial activities and power production in a infinite figure of surveies carried out in the milieus of emanation beginnings. Therefore research related to the pollution based on lichen as an indexs being used widely. This is because there were certain features on lichens that make them an first-class bioindicators for finding the presence of the primary pollutants such as sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) , fluoride, acerb precipitation, ozone and metals ( Hutchinson et al. , 1996 ) . Several regional and even national studies have been carried out on the relationship between the happening of epiphytic lichen and atmospheric pollutants ( Poikolainen et al. , 2000 ) . Other than that, Soderstrom ( 1988 ) , Lesica et al. , ( 1991 ) , Esseen et al. , ( 1997 ) cited in Humphrey et al. , ( 2002 ) supported that epiphytic nonvascular plants and lichens are of import constituents of biological diverseness in natural boreal and temperate woods. Most of species of lichen have a broad geographical distribution, which allows for a survey of pollution covering broad countries and its high capacity to roll up metals Burton ( 1986 ) cited in Mokhtar et al. , ( 2006 ) . Hutchinson et al. , ( 1996 ) stated that lichens do non hold seasonal fluctuations and therefore accretion of pollutants can happen all old ages. They cover 8 % of the land surface, including some of the most utmost environments on Earth Larson ( 1987 ) cited in Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) . Lichens and mosses normally have considerable length of service, which led to their usage as long-run planimeters of atmospheric deposition ( Sloof, 1993 ) . Lichens are really sensitive to break in naturality ensuing from air pollutants, chiefly sulfur dioxide and heavy metals ( Nimis et al. , 2002 ) . Their alone characteristic which is do non hold outer impermeable bed of tissue to forestall gases and atoms that affect their metamorphosis. This characteristic besides indicate that little atoms in the ambiance can be absorbed do them most of import bioindicator ( Bennet, 2006 ) . Besides that, because of the failing of its cuticles enables moist air to be absorbed through its surface. Metallic elements which are absorbed along with the moist air are dissolved in it ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) . Trace metals from air borne atoms can be absorbed by lichen and so roll up and saturated the metals. This is because their construction and anatomy ( Hutchinson et al, 1996 ) do them able to uptake the pollutants. The diminishing of some lichen diverseness due to the increasing in air pollution and environmental emphasis ( Svoboda, 2010 ) indicate that the environmental status in that part is polluted. Pollution signifiers such as forest atomization ( Fritz et al. , 2008 ; Hedenas and Ericson, 2008 ; Ranius et al. , 2008 ) give premium public-service corporation as indexs of naturalist.2.3 Biological public presentationLichens can be considered and analyzed in footings of their morphology, histology, ecology and physiology, in short or long-run periods of clip ( Ahmadjian and Hale, 1973 ) . Several researches Garty et al. , ( 1998 ) has been studied on the lichen ‘s biological public presentation such as measurings on growing rate, productiveness, generative capacity, malformation, stain, chlorophyll content, membrane unity, respiratory activity, ionic content, geographical happening, substrate-related distributional restrictions, or H2O dealingss. Habitat debasement and loss ( Groom et al. , 2006 ) , habitat atomization ( Bergamini et al. , 2005 ) , overuse ( Upreti et al. , 2005 ) , species invasions ( La Greca and Stutzman, 2006 ) , and clime alteration is the chief menaces to the biodiversity of lichens. For illustration, overbrowsing of the Cladonia heath by increasing caribou populations in Scandinavia and Alaska has long been recognised as an of import factor doing the terrible diminution of lichens, which might go a serious job in caribou farming ( Suominen and Olfosson, 2000 ) . Climate alteration is likely to hold dramatic effects on distribution and copiousness of lichen populations ( Ellis and Coppins, 2007 ; Ellis et al. , 2007 ) . Yet another menace which is specific to lichens and other poikilohydric cryptogams is air pollution, which has led to the terrible diminution of legion species throughout Central Europe ( Nimis et al. , 2002 ) . The construction and features of lichens play of import function as they served as the early warning to the pollution. Otnyukova et Al. ( 2007 ) identifies a relationship between deposition, unnatural morphology in Usnea and tissue chemical science, supplying an early indicant of forest diminution. However the biological grading, the reading of â€Å" symptom function † is frequently instead hard Seaward ( 1976 ) cited in Wolterbeek et al. , ( 2003 ) . Due to the addition in size may reflect an addition in generative capacity but may besides merely show an abnormalcy of form or signifier of the cardinal parts of the thallus. Another ground is the stain might be associated to the general deteriorate but besides reflect hurts from other beginnings such as insect, diseases or chemical sprays. Last but non least, alterations in the distribution of species may reflect alterations in air pollution ( Barkman, 1958 ; De Wit, 1976 ; Henderson-Sellers and Seaward, 1979 cited in Wolterbeek et al.,2003 ) , but may besides be associated to other environmental parametric quantities ( Henderson-Sellers and Seaward, 1979 ) , such as alterations in humidness or alterations in the handiness of preferent substrates ( De Wit, 1976 ; Manning and Feder, 1980 ) .2.4 Heavy metalsDetermining concentrations of heavy metals in the environment is an of import portion of understanding biochemical procedures and grade of ecosystem wellness ( Schilling and Lehman, 2002 ) . Harmonizing to USEPA in Private Drinking Water Wells, heavy metals can be define as metallic elements with high denseness, such as, quicksilver Cr Cd, arsenic, and lead. Even at low degrees these metals can damage living things. Once heavy metals get into the environment, whether in little or big measures, they can non be wholly e liminated. They can non to interrupt down or biodegrade and be given to construct up in workss, animate beings, and people doing wellness concerns. This statement supported by other research workers such as Lenntech ( 2004 ) cited in Duruibe et al. , ( 2007 ) which stated that any heavy metal is toxic or toxicant even at low concentration. However, their denseness is non the most concerns features to be considered but their chemical belongingss ( Duruibe et al. , 2007 ) as they can do important impact to the environment. ( Dembitsky, 2003 ) reported that these toxic substances contribute to a assortment of toxic effects on life beings by nutrient concatenation as they enter into environment.2.5 Beginning of metal pollutionHeavy metals occur in two ways ; of course or geological and anthropogenetic activities such as industrial wastewaters, fuel production, excavation, smelting procedures, military operations, use of agricultural chemicals, small-scale industries ( including battery production, metal merchandises, metal smelting and overseas telegram coating industries ) , brick kilns and coal burning ( Zhen-Guo et al. , 2002 ) . This statement supported by Dembitsky ( 2003 ) which stated that these tracts are beginnings of heavy metal taint. Other than that Zhang et Al. ( 2009 ) noted that in nature, heavy metals are widely distributed in such ways such as H2O, dirt, air and assorted signifiers of beings at low concentration. Harmonizing to fairfaxcounty ( 2005 ) nowadays roadways and cars are considered to be one of the largest beginnings of heavy metals. The most common heavy metals released from route travel are zinc, Cu, and lead, and at least 90 of the entire metals in route overflow. However lead concentrations, systematically have been diminishing since leaded gasolene was stopped. Other than that, undistinguished sums of other metals, such as Ni and Cd, are besides found in route overflow and fumes.2.6 Metallic elements toxicityPassage metals are required by workss ( Akbulut et al.,2008 ; Sofuoglu, et al.,2008 ) . Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) stated that the elements can be classified into macronutrients or micronutrients and as indispensable and non-essential. Some metals ; Co ( Co ) , Cu ( Cu ) , Cr ( Cr ) , and Ni ( Ni ) are really necessary for human in highly little sums ( Zevenhoven and Kilpinen, 2001 ) . However some elements for illustration quicksilver ( Hg ) , Cd ( Cd ) , lead ( Pb ) , Cr ( Cr ) and arsenic ( As ) , can do pollution and interrupt the environment when their accretions exceed certain degrees even at low concentration ( Kennish, 1992 ) . Harmonizing to Jadia and Fulekar ( 2009 ) classified that â€Å"essential† metals which have benefits and of course found are ( Ca, Co, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, Se, V and Zn ) but can be toxic when inordinate while â€Å"non essential† metals which are ( Al, As, Au, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, Pd, Pt, Sb, Te, Tl and U ) that can be extremely toxic and can do serious wellness harm when inordinate consumption. Information given by Bowen ( 1979 ) cited in Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) and Markert ( 1996 ) can be utilize for farther general and more elaborate informations on metal essentialness, happening in dirts and workss, toxicity and uptake. Plants have the ability to roll up indispensable metals in different concentration for growing and development ( Jadia and Fulekar, 2009 ) . However workss besides tend to roll up the non-essential metals which have no known biological map ( Djingova and Kuleff, 2000 ) . Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) found that because of the works ‘s me tabolically controlled care of needed degrees of indispensable elements, lichens may demo instead high base-line concentrations for particularly the indispensable elements under low atmospheric handiness conditions. Because of their features which is can non to be brake down, it can do direct toxicity by damaging cell construction ( due to oxidative emphasis caused by reactive O species ) and suppress a figure of cytoplasmatic enzymes when the accretion inside works cells above threshold or optimum degree ( Assche and Clijsters, 1990 ) . Furthermore, it can do indirect toxic effects by replacing indispensable foods at cation exchange sites in workss ( Taiz and Zeiger, 2002 ) . Baker ( 1981 ) cited in Jadia and Fulekar ( 2009 ) suggested, that some workss have evolved to digest the presence of big sums of metals in their environment by the undermentioned three ways ; exclution, inclution and bioaccumulation.2.7 Lichens and surplus of heavy metalsPermeability of the plasma membrane of lichens may change by metals, taking to leakage of ions like K and other solutes ( Grunsveld and Clijsters, 1994 ) . Biomonitors by lichens at specific country has failing as their responses could be changing from th ose observed in the research lab. This is due to the fact that the lichens are exposed non merely to a individual pollutant but to other mixtures of pollutants which are besides affected by different meteoric conditions ( Carreras et al. , 2005 ) . Although biomonitoring plan on atmospheric heavy metals and advancement in this field has been already reviewed throughout the universe ( Garty, 2001 ; Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) but in the last few old ages at that place has been researched focused on the physiological and biochemical effects of heavy metal accretion in lichens ( Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) . There are many surveies has been documented sing the effectivity of lichens in stoping atoms non merely from the ambiance but besides from substrate ( Loppi et al. , 1999 ; Pirintsos et al. , 2006 ) . These atoms may be precipitated onto the lichen surface or trapped in the intercellular infinites of the myelin ( Garty et al. , 1979 cited in Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) and remain unchanged for a long period. Lichen can be harm caused by the presence of other gaseous or particulate pollutants in the environment which can disrupt the physiological procedures involved in the accretion of heavy metals ( Carreras et al. , 2005 ) . However Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) found that because of the atoms deposited and remain unchanged, lichens can retain and accretion of heavy metals in measures that exceed their physiological demands. Several surveies have been conducted on the accretion of heavy metals in many different species ( Sawidis et al. , 1995 ; Monaci et al. , 1997 ; Scerbo et al. , 1999 ; Loppi et al. , 2002 ) . Some common species such as genera Acarospora, Aspicilia, Lecanora, Lecidea, Porpidia, Rhizocarpon or Tremolecia ( Purvis and Halls, 1996 ; Backor and Fahselt, 2004 ) associated with heavy metal-rich substrates can digest metals and occur in both contaminated and uncontaminated countries. Other species, nevertheless, are restricted and have a deficiency connexion in distribution reflecting the handiness of suited sites ( Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) .2.7 Accretion of heavy metalsLichens tend to roll up metals from airborne atoms or from dissolved and suspended stuff ( Wolterbeek et al.,2003 ) . In general, five mechanisms have been put frontward with respect to the soaking up of metals in lichens ; ion exchange, electrolyte sorption, intracellular soaking up, entrapment of atoms that contain metals, extracellular and hydrolysis as indicated by uptake surveies with integral lichens ( Richardson, 1995 ) . Accretion of heavy metals in lichens is good documented ( Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) . Lichen tissue analysis likely arose from physiological probes into the consequence of heavy metals on lichen metamorphosis. Experimental work over the period from 1970-1985 by a group of lichen physiological ecologists, chiefly based at Laurentian University in Sudbury, determined the precise relationship between elemental consumption, storage and lichen metamorphosis ( Richardson and Nieboer, 1983 ; Richardson and Puckett, 1973 ) . The function of lichens as collector the heavy metals of assorted hint elements in atmospheric deposition, and tissue analyses have efficaciously characterized their spacial and temporal deposition forms has been studied by several research workers such as ( Garty, 2001 ; Walker et al. , 2003 ) . Harmonizing to Baker ( 1983 ) cited in Contti and Cecchetti ( 2001 ) there are many factors that influence the accretion of metals of workss such as the handiness of elements, the features of workss such as type of reproduction. Therefore, the grade of tolerance to heavy metals is characteristic of each lichen species ( Carreras and Pignata, 2007 ) . Neiboer et Al. ( 1976 ) indicated a big scope in the elemental consumption of lichens that varied harmonizing to elemental features of the substrate and environmental factors, notably a tenfold addition in metals in relation to distance from smelters. Metallic elements and sulfur dioxide behave otherwise and are expected to hold differing radioactive dust forms ; nevertheless Rossbach et Al. ( 1999 ) demonstrated a additive correlativity between the element concentration in lichen stuff and the reciprocal of the distance from the emanation beginnings. However, an equal consideration of topography, substrate and meteoric conditions must b e considered to explicate fluctuation. Different species have different ability to absorb considerable sums of heavy metals ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) . For illustration Pawlik-Skowronska et Al. ( 2006 ) found that apothecia of Lecanora polytropa accumulated Cu up to 1.3 % ( d.m. ) , about 50 % of which was in an exchangeable signifier. Other than that a few surveies have shown that foliaceous species by and large had higher component tonss than shrubby species when collected from the same site ( Glenn et al. , 1995 ; Gough et al. , 1988 ; Lawrey and Hale, 1981 cited in Clair et al. , 2002 ) . Assorted analytical techniques have been attempted by many research workers to increase cognition on the bonding procedure which is interaction between lichen and metal. One of them is electron paramagnetic resonance. Although Conti and Cecchetti ( 2001 ) reported that there was missing cognition in understanding the full procedure that responsible in the accretion, but there were new attack late been introduced which is by utilizing microcalorimetric technique with the purpose of obtaining enthalpic measuring informations ( Antonelli et al. , 1998 ) . As a consequence the tendency established a good correlativity between the metal bond and heat content values in metal consumption. For illustration tendency for Evernia Prunastri Pb & gt ; & gt ; Zn & gt ; Cd? Cu? Cr ( Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . The algal spouse has been reported to respond more sensitively e.g. , to acidic deposition and heavy metals, and to demo changing accretion of metals depending on the sourness of precipitation ( Tarhanen et al. , 1999 ) . Sporadic dehydration of lichens may besides hold an consequence on the accretion and soaking up of elements ( Puckett, 1988 ) . After a dry period, rainfall may ensue in appreciable rinsing off of atoms and the exchange of cations bound on negatively charged exchange sites on the cell walls and plasma membranes of the cells ( Bargagli, 1998 ) . The rapid, exchangeable procedure of metal adhering to cell walls in metal consumption by lichens has been extensively studied in the research lab ( Brown, 1976 ; Goyal and Seaward, 1982 ; Nieboer and Richardson, 1981 ; Nieboer et al. , 1978 cited in Wolterbeek et al. , 2003 ) . Several surveies have been conducted to mensurate the deposition of atmospheric in lichen. France and Coquery ( 1996 ) , for illustration measured deposition of atmospheric lead and compared them to lichen thalline contents from the high Arctic utilizing flameless atomic surface assimilation spectrophotometry. They found that the concentration of 2 ug g-1 dry weights to be the lowest degree found in lichen and established a latitudinal gradient in lead, with a clear form in diminishing Pb concentrations in lichens with increasing latitude throughout Canada. Simple to complex methods for finding the concentration of ions in lichen tissue have been developed for decennaries and it is widely accepted that tissue concentrations in most lichen species shows a precise relationship with deposition of particulate and ambient air concentrations of gaseous pollutants ( Seaward, 1992 ) . Entrapment of atoms contains metals which known as airborne pollutants accumulate in lichens by both moistures and dry deposition ( Nash, 1996 ) . Wet deposition involves any sort of precipitation event that washes airborne aerosols and particles out of the air, while dry deposition involves the settling out of airborne gases or atoms due to the increasing influence of gravitation with diminishing air current velocity ( Knops et al. , 1991 ) . Another beginning of elements such as dirt atoms deposited by windblown on lichen thalli may be accumulated by some lichens. Smaller deposited atoms may go trapped in the lichen thalli of species with big intercellular infin ites ( Collins and Farrar, 1978 cited in Clair et al. , 2002. However, when the concentration of metals is high plenty to go toxic, they themselves cause harm to the lichen thalli. As a consequence, several physiological mechanisms of response to air pollutants in lichens are altered, and therefore alter their original sensitiveness or tolerance to gaseous compounds like SO2, NOx, and O3 ( Carreras and Pignata, 2007 ) . These compounds affect the status of lichens and therefore cut down the capacity of lichens to roll up and absorb elements from the ambiance. Heavy metals have besides been found to impact e.g. , the permeableness of the cell membranes of lichens ( Tarhanen et al. , 1996 ) .2.8 Factors considerationHeavy metal content in lichen thallus tends to jump over clip in stages of accretion and subsequent release. Szczepaniak and Biziuk ( 2003 ) listed the factors that influence the metal soaking up in lichens which are acerb precipitation, geographical fluctuations such as height, temporal alterations for illustration seasonal fluctuati ons, dirt dust, local pollution beginnings, long-range conveyance. Climatic factors likely play of import function in the bioaccumulation of heavy metals, even if this yet ill-defined. Aptroot and new wave Herk ( 2007 ) provide increasing grounds that clime alteration is an of import factor, partially based on grounds from the algal spouse, much neglected in about all surveies, even though it is normally most sensitive to pollutants. The way in which the pollutants are transported by wind way is most surely cardinal in finding their chief radioactive dust point ( Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Accretion of heavy metals in lichens is a dynamic procedure. Probe on the effects of extra metals showed that lichens soaked into metal solutions accumulated metals rapidly within a few hours. Observation on some metals such as Cu showed maximal accretion after 3- 6 H ( Monnet et al. , 2006 ) . In organ transplant surveies indicated that most lichens respond to alterations in atmospheric heavy metals within a few months. It took 2-5 old ages to measure the elements in lichen thalli ( Walther et al. , 1990 ) . Although it expected that the heavy metal content of lichens would increase as the clip addition, but the state of affairs is truly much more complicated. Surveies from Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) showed that contents of several elements in transplanted lichens go up and down during the survey period. This is because the contents of these elements are, at least partially, controlled by physiological procedures and turnover mechanisms ( Bergamaschi et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore, metals can be removed by rainwater which remove polluting atoms on the thallus surface ( Brown and Brown, 1991 ) ensuing in lower content during periods of rain and higher content in the dry season. Other than that, the water-leachable fraction ( deposited plus intercellular ) is by and large assumed to stand for chiefly metals originated from dry deposition, and the elements present in leachates show distinguishable temporal forms with concentrations being normally higher in summer than in winter ( Boonpragob and Nash, 1990 ) . However, because lichens are more active metabolically when moisture, winter months are suited to growing and mineral consumption ( Nash and Gries, 1995 ) . Not merely the water-leachable fraction contributes the uneven of the concentration, rainfall besides amply contributes to the entire component content of lichens ( Knops et al. , 1991 ) . Both of the procedure could bring forth temporal differences in metal contents in malice of changeless pollution tonss, nevertheless the concentrations in lichen thalli chiefly varies harmonizing to sums of incident pollutants. These may bring forth a high sum of biological emphasis, therefore alter element consump tion ( Bergamaschi et al. , 2007 ) . Besides that, the clip exposure of lichens transplanted into contaminated countries besides takes a count in the accretion of elements procedure. This is because it influences the verve of thalli and accordingly the active procedures of element consumption. Garty ( 2001 ) noted that in order to find the minimum exposure required to bring forth important alteration, the critical period of exposure remains unknown particularly in the absence of time-studies. Short exposure times of 1-3 months are by and large sufficient to impact transplanted lichens. When the exposure is longer, they become saturated with the elements, lose biomass, surface constructions change and alter physiological public presentation ( Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) . Other factors are the constructions of lichen itself influence the metal consumption. Their physical features such a surface construction, adhesion and water-holding capacity of thalli besides affect metal accretion in lichens ( Brown and Beckett, 1985 ) . Richardson ( 1995 ) observed that pores and holes on the cerebral mantle, which could pin down atoms or let them to come in inside the thallus, in some species may be sealed by polymers, likely including lichenins and isolichenins. In contaminated countries, the concentration of hint component in the peripheral ( younger ) of foliaceous lichens may be lower than cardinal ( older ) portion of the thallus because of the greater exposure times experienced ( Bargagli et al. , 1987 cited in Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) . This comparing has been studied by ( Loppi et al. , 1997 ) , where they used Flavoparmelia caperata thalli from an uncontaminated country of cardinal Italy. They found out that there was extremely variable and contents of s everal elements ( As, Cr, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Sb ) were similar. Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) suggested that the concentration in cardinal thallus parts were higher because the elements are trapped in the myelin. The indispensable elements for metamorphosis which is Co, Cu, Mo, and Zn were concentrated in the peripheral parts which are the metabolic activities are most active. This suggests that metals can travel from one portion of the thallus to another. However a few surveies have shown that foliaceous species by and large had higher component tonss than shrubby species when collected from the same site ( Glenn et al. , 1995 ) Altitude seems play of import function for some elements. Study has been done on hypogymnia physodesof on lead ( Pb ) and Cd ( Cd ) concentration ( Kral et al. , 1989 cited in Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . He found that concentration of Pb and Cd addition as the height increase up to 900-1100 m. at higher height, Cd concentration tend to diminish. Therefore, this species of lichen is suited to measure the metals uptake in position of its high-tolerance capacities ( Jeran et al. , 1996 ) . The ground for this is likely because of the different sum of precipitation, and deposition of more soluble elements ( Kral et al. , 1989 cited in Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Another factor is related to the species of lichen. Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) noted that different species contain changing sums of metals even at the same palce. It is obvious that the sum of metal contained by lichen is species-dependent. Upreti and Pandey ( 1994 ) described this statement by made comparing between Umbilicaria decussata and U. aprina in Antarctica. From the consequence, they found out that the lichen Umbilicaria decussata collected contained more Pb and Fe than U. aprina in the same site. This difference was attributed to the thin thallus of U. decussata which makes for a high ratio of surface country to dry weight as compared with U. aprina. Temporal alterations such as season fluctuation besides contribute to the rate of metal consumption. Basically high concentration of heavy metals found in thallus after summer twenty-four hours. This is due to the increased hydration that consequences from autumn rainfall ( Nieboer et al. , 1978 cited in Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Loppi et Al. ( 1997 ) studied the hint component content in Mediterranean clime. As the accretion non being washout, they found out that it is strongly influenced by the dirt dust taint. On a smaller graduated table, lichens turning on stray trees contain higher sums of heavy metal-rich atoms than those in heavy tree bases. Even in single trees, heavy metal accretion depends on the extent of stemflow on a peculiar side and is normally higher close land degree ( Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) . In general, much polluted countries have merely really tolerant species ; clean air-areas have a much higher natural diverseness of lichens including several that are highly sensitive to little measures of sulfur dioxide.Chapter 3Methodology2.1 ApparatusThe setup that being used for carry oning the analysis are beaker ( 250 milliliter ) , analytical balance, 0.45  µm glass fibre filter paper, volumetric flask ( 50 milliliter ) , pipette ( 10ml ) , forceps, Teflon vas, micro-cook digestion system ETHOS 1 Milestone, and extractor tubing ( 15 milliliter ) .2.2 ChemicalsThe chemicals used for this analysis show in table 2.2 Table 2.1 list of chemicals usedChemicalsDeionize H2OAzotic acid ( HNO3 ) ( 65 % )Hydrogen Peroxide ( 35 % )Standard solution Standard 3 concentration 10 µg/ml2.3 Quality Control ( QC ) and Quality Assurance ( QA )Quality confidence and quality control play of import functions for carry oning analysis of research. Both of them must be following in order to find, calculate and guarantee the systematic and random error in planning, trying, analysis and information reported. Quality control is certain be aftering for the whole research lab operation such as aggregation method and manages informations and samples through criterion processs which help in obtaining a good information, dependable and have high assurance degree. On the other manus, quality control is a set of processs in methodological analysis such as the sampling method and analysis for guaranting that the procedure is under control, which is follow the right standard process guideline. Preciseness and rightness are of i mport in QC. In this survey, day-to-day public presentation study was used to measure the public presentation of ICP-MS and its surrounding. The study contains the value of strength, the preciseness, sensitiveness, interventions and the background of environing. These standards are of import to cognize the laboratory status and instrument used which can impact the public presentation. From the study obtained, these standards are under standard given. This indicates that the status of its surrounding is good. Other than that, the standardization curve determines the concentration of the samples whether within the criterion or non. A one-dimensionality cheque was made after the standardization by analyzing the rectification coefficient of the curve. The best for coefficient curve is 1. Table Besides that, the rinse out survey is performed to do certain that carry over does non impact readings after the debut of a solution of higher concentration. This can be done in the proper rinse times.2.4 Description of survey countryBukit Larut once known as Maxwell Hill is a upland located 10 kilometer from Taiping, Perak, Malaysia. It was founded in 1888 and is Malaysia ‘s oldest hill resort. Its tallness about 1250 m above sea degree and the temperature is about the same as Fraser ‘s Hill, between 19-25 °C. Bukit Larut was the wettest portion of the state as it receives the highest rainfall in the state. It was foremost founded by William Edward Maxwell who was appointed as Assistant Resident of Perak in 1875 to function as a cool retreat for colonial functionaries from the humidness of the Lowlandss. Not every bit developed as the popular upland such as Cameroon Highland and Genting Highland, Bukit Larut retain their good environmental quality as nature has been left on its ain to boom bounteously. It is widely known by Green Peace Lover, Botanical Scientists, and Flora and Fauna Specialist World Wide. Taiping was a beautiful basin, surrounded by exuberant tropical jungle and exalted hills. Gazetted as a lasting wood modesty in 1910, Bukit Larut ‘s untasted mountain woods are filled with bird life, with squirrels and Gibbons roam around freely. There were 100s and 1000s of rare species of vegetations and zoologies which barely to happen anywhere else. This topographic point is popular particularly with nature lovers, bird spectators, twenty-four hours trippers looking for a placid pickup.2.5 Sample readyingTwenty samples from different species of lichens were collected utilizing fictile knife to avoid any metals taint. The samples so transferred and sealed in airtight in nothing lock bags. Lichens should non be air-dried in countries subject to taint such as roads and dust degrees are high. The samples need to be rinsed before being dried at room temperature for 24 hours. Then the samples are dried in the oven for 12 hours at temperature 50 °C and let to be cooled in room temperature. After that, the sample crushed into little pieces and maintain in polyethylene bottle and labeled.2.6 Microwave assisted acid digestionThe sample must be prepared in solution signifier before analysis.The samples were digested utilizing ETHOS 1 Milestone microwave system. This method is applicable to the microwave assisted acerb digestion on biological. The specification of the microwave is show on table 2.2 Table 2.2 Specification of ETHOS 1 Milestone microwave systemItemSpecificationHNO365 % – 70 %Maximal temperature200  °CTemperature control ATC detector length180  µmMaximal force per unit area30 saloon ( 435 pounds per square inch )Vessel stuffTFM TeflonVessel volume75 milliliterMaximal reagent volume35 milliliterCover stuffTFM TeflonVessel weight? 250 gThis method is applicable for the undermentioned elements in table 2.3 Table 2.3 The elements applicable utilizing the microwave assisted systemElementssAluminumCopperSilverAntimonyIronSodiumArsenicLeadStrontiumBoronMagnesiumThalliumBariumMangeneseVanadiumCadmiumMercuryCalciumMolybdenumChromiumNickelCobaltPotassiumCopperSelenium2.6.1 Interventions2.6.1 Gaseous digestion reaction merchandises, really reactive, or volatile stuffs that may make high force per unit areas when heated and may do discharge of the vass with possible loss of sample and analytes. The complete decomposition of either carbonates, or C based samples, may do adequate force per unit area to vent the vas if the sample size is greater than 0.25 g. 2.6.2 The utilizations of several digestion reagents that are necessary to either wholly decompose the matrix or to stabilise specific elements may restrict the usage of specific analytical instrumentality methods. Hydrochloric acid is known to interfere with some instrumental analysis methods such as fire atomic soaking up ( FLAA ) and inductively coupled plasma atomic emanation spectroscopy ( ICP-AES ) . The presence of hydrochloric acid may be debatable for graphite furnace atomic soaking up ( GFAA ) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy ( ICP-MS ) . Hydrofluoric acid, which is capable of fade outing silicates, may necessitate the remotion of extra hydrofluoric acid or the usage of specialised non-glass constituents during instrumental analysis. Method 3052 enables the analyst to choose other decomposition reagents that may besides do jobs with instrumental analyses asking matrix matching of criterions to account for viscousness and chemical differences.2.6.2 Reagent ch oiceMethod 3052 allows the analyst to choose specific reagents for specific matrices and analytes of involvement. Typically 9.0 milliliter of azotic acid are placed in the reaction vas with the sample, and a combination of other reagents such as hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, or H peroxide may be added based on matrix and peculiar analytes. Hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acids are both used as complexation reagents particularly in the presence of silicates and cherished metals severally. The usage of H peroxide enhances the oxidization belongingss of azotic acid particularly in the digestion of organics. Nevertheless peroxide may be used in all digestions, nevertheless be cognizant of the increased responsiveness with organic stuffs. The following table suggests reagents and their ratios utilizing method 3052. Table 2.4 reagents and their ratios utilizing method 3052Reagent and volume ( milliliter )MatrixHNO3HafniumHClH2O2Dirt9321Sediment9321Biological9012Botanic90.50.51Waste oil90.50.522.7 Sample digestion0.1g sample of lichen is weighed out in the reaction vas. 10 milliliter of azotic acid are so added to each vas. Then 1.0 milliliters hydrogen peroxide is added for complete oxidization of organic affair. Both of the reagents were added in a fume goon to avoid the inspiration of the vapour gas that arises. As for the mention vas or the clean sample, it is the same manner as the readying for sample but non include the sample. The vas is allowed to respond for about one minute prior to sealing the vass to homogenise the sample. The vas decently topographic point in the microwave system harmonizing to the maker ‘s recommended specifications and connect appropriate temperature and force per unit area detectors to vass harmonizing to maker ‘s specifications. Both detectors allow m onitoring and controlling of both external and internal temperature of all vass in existent clip during the digestion. Vessels should so be placed in the rotor and placed in the microwave. After that, the vass heated with 120 °C for temperature at 850W for one hr. Following, the vas allowed to be cooled before uncap. Carefully, the sample solution so transferred into centrifuge tubing.2.8 Laboratory analysisAfter samples were digested in close vas, the solution so filtered utilizing 0.45 µm Glass Fiber Whatman filter paper. The solution so transferred into a 50ml volumetric flask and diluted with deionized H2O. Finally, the solution analyzed by utilizing Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry ( ICP-MS ) Perkin Elmer Series 200.2.9 Elemental analysis2.9.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry or ICP-MSInductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry or ICP-MS is an analytical technique used for elemental analysis with first-class sensitiveness. The ICP-MS instrument empl oys argon plasma ( ICP ) as the ionisation beginning and a mass spectrometer ( MS ) , normally with a quadrupole mass filter, to divide the ions produced. It can at the same time mensurate most elements in the periodic tabular array and find analyte concentrations down to the subnanogram per litre, or parts per trillion ( ppt ) , degree. It can execute qualitative, semiquantitative, and quantitative analysis, and compute isotopic ratios on H2O samples, and in waste infusions and digests. Figure 1 shows a conventional representation of an ICP beginning in an ICP-MS. In an ICP-MS instrument, liquid samples are introduced by a peristaltic pump to the atomizer where a sample aerosol is formed. A double-pass spray chamber ensures that a consistent aerosol is introduced to the plasma. Argon gas is introduced through a series of homocentric vitreous silica tubings, known as the ICP torch. The torch is located in the centre of a wireless frequence ( RF ) spiral. A Tesla spiral ionizes the Ar gas and free negatrons are accelerated by a 27 MHz wireless frequence field. Collisions between the accelerated negatrons and the Ar gas bring forth a high-temperature plasma. The sample aerosol is outright decomposed in the plasma to organize analyte atoms, some of which are ionized. The ions produced are extracted from the plasma into the mass spectrometer part, which is maintained at a high vacuity ( typically 10-6 millimeter of mercury ) utilizing differential pumping. The analyte ions are extracted through a brace of openings, about 1 millimeters in diameter, known as the trying cone and the skimmer cone. The analyte ions are so focused by a series of lenses into a quadrupole mass analyser which separates the ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio ( m/z ) . Finally, ions are detected utilizing an negatron multiplier, and informations at all multitudes are collected and stored through a computing machine interface. The mass spectrum generated is highly simple. Each elemental isotope appears at a different mass ; for illustration, 111Cd would look at 111 amu whereas 113Cd would look at 113 amu, with peak strengths straight relative to the initial concentration of each isotope. Despite the easiness of usage and first-class sensitiveness of this method, quantitative ICP-MS measurings are prone to matrix effects and other interventions that must be considered. For illustration, the presence of high chloride degrees in the sample will ensue in the formation of 40Ar35Cl+ , a molecular ion that interferes with the finding of 75As, the merely of course happening isotope of arsenic. Other factors, such as the concluding concentration of an acid used to fade out the sample, can impact the signal. The method of standard add-on can counterbalance for most of these effects, but this is a time-consuming attack and is non suited for big Numberss of samples. Another scheme that may assist is the usage of an internal criterion component with a mass and ionisation energy similar to that of the analyte. A combination of these attacks will be used in this experiment. ICP-MS can observe a really low concentration. Table 2.9.1 show the sensing bound for a broad assortment of elements. Table 2.5 sensing bound for elementsComponentsuggested wavelength ( nanometer )appraisal sensing bound ( ug/L )standardization concentration ( mg/L )upper bound concentration ( mg/L )aluminum308.224010100arsenous anhydride193.7 & lt ;Essay Writing Service Fully referenced, delivered on clip, Essay Writing Service.Assignment Writing Service Everything we do is focussed on composing the best possible assignment for your exact demandsTaging Service Our Marking Service will assist you pick out the countries of your work that need betterment.

Assessment and Learners Essay

4 Understand how to involve learners and others in assessment 4. 1 Explain the importance of involving the learner and others in the assessment process Assessment is all about making judgements. A major argument for involving students in self and peer-assessment is that it helps them to develop the ability to make judgements, in particular about themselves and their work. This is an important life skill as well as an academic one. If an assessor wants to observe a specific piece of evidence but is unable to because maybe it hasn’t occurred in any methods of assessment; this is where it’s important for others to get involved for example the managers or the colleagues. The workers can motivate the learner when the assessor is not around. The workers can act as an expert witness, so when the assessor goes to visit the candidate he/she could provide the assessor with a witness testimony, and this will be put as evidence in the portfolio 4. 2 Summarise types of information that should be made available to learners and others involved in the assessment process Students should be made aware of the criteria in which they will be assessed from the start of the course as well as the forms of assessments that will be used during the process and the length of time it will take. The learners should be given information on what the outcome will be for the different assessments undertaken as well as what qualification is expected on completion of the course. 4. 3 Explain how peer and self-assessment can be used effectively to promote involvement and personal responsibility in the assessment of learning There are many benefits of peer assessment. Students assessing each other’s learning can help the learners to feel supported by their peers. There is also the benefit that the learners may be able to relate more easily with their peers than with a tutor. Peer assessment assists the learners gain confidence and social skills and shares the roles of assessing and being assessed equally between the learners. One suggested peer assessment activity is to have students work in groups, discussing each other’s’ in-class assignments and ways to improve, develop and adapt for improvements providing their peers with peer led feedback and assessment. Self-assessment is a natural progression and grows out of peer assessment. It allows the students to examine their own work and discover strengths and weaknesses for themselves. This can be carried out through reflective practice through a diary of learning or learning log that allows the student to see progression and reflect upon the journey. It’s important to incorporate some aspect of self-assessment every day, if possible, in order for students to take responsibility and interest in their abilities. Another way of using self-assessment is by asking the students to give themselves a grade on the work that they have completed before handing in the work to the marking criteria set, or for student looks at their assignment and marks green for questions that they feels confident about, yellow for questions that they are unsure of and red for questions that will require help. 4. 4 Explain how assessment arrangements can be adapted to meet the needs of individual learners Assessment arrangements can be adapted by allowing the learners to have an element of choice on how the criterion is assessed. This will allow the learners to feel included and means that the tutor is not offering an alternative or necessarily forcing the learner to disclose their lack of understanding or forcing adjustment. An example would be giving all learners the choice of having a Unit assessed either by portfolio or by written examination or by observation. In short, as long as the assessment criteria are being assessed to the same standard, the assessment method can be flexible and should meet the needs of the learners 5 Understand how to make assessment decisions 5. 1 Explain how to judge whether evidence is: sufficient, authentic and current All assessments must be valid, reliable, practicable, and equitable and assessors must apply the standards of assessment uniformly and consistently. . Ensuring assessments are capable of generating sufficient evidence for learners’ to demonstrate that they have met the assessment criteria. Having this process gives the learners clear instructions to the assessments that will be used during the course as well as clear and precise guidelines for completion. It gives both the tutors and the learners the recommended guidelines on how work for the course should be presented and what evidence is required for verification, this in turn allows the tutor and the organisation to map the developments of the learner through the assessment criteria being met. This ensures that all courses awarded are valid and that the course has worked to the set Quality Assurance of the awarding body and organisation; thus being assessed accurately, consistently and fairly to set standards. Sufficient evidence must cover all aspects of the assessment criteria for each unit the learner is seeking to achieve and collect enough evidence to demonstrate knowledge and competence. The learner must be able to show that the work produced is authentic and able to explain and substantiate the evidence the learner has put forward. It is important, therefore, to ensure that any work that the learner submits is only evidence relating to your own performance. Current’ means evidence relating to skills, attitudes and knowledge you can currently demonstrate in relation to the criterion and unit being taught. 5. 2 Explain how to ensure that assessment decisions are: made against specified criteria, valid, reliable and fair The assessor should follow as far as possible the criteria set down in the relevant unit and qualification. All qualifications go through a standardisation process that enables each assessor to consistently make valid decisions; that all assessors make the same decision on the same evidence base and all candidates are assessed fairly. All corresponding evidence from the learner should be reliable in that they have concrete knowledge and skill to back up their evidence. The evidence should be fair in that any leaner will have the same opportunity to complete the assignment.

Brexit Essay - Aceyourpaper.com

Brexit Essay Table of Contents 1. Titles 2. Topics 3. Outline 4. Abstract 5. Thesis Statement 6. Introduction 7. Body of Essay 8. Conclusion 9. Works Cited Potential Titles The Potential Effects of Brexit on the European Union Why Did the UK Voters Approve Brexit? Developing Post-Brexit Trade with the European Union Topics The Economic and Political Impact of Brexit The International Implications of Brexit Should the UK Reconsider Its Brexit Decision? The Pros and Cons of the Brexit Decision Outline I.   Abstract II.   Introduction III.   Body A.   Background and overview B.   Immediate after effect of Brexit vote C.   What the future holds IV.   Conclusion Abstract In June 2016, voters in the United Kingdom approved the so-called â€Å"Brexit† referendum, signaling the withdrawal of the British Commonwealth from the European Union. Although a number of economic indicators experienced a short-term downturn after the Brexit vote, most indicators have returned to their pre-Brexit levels and some have even improved. There are also other signs that the devastating consequences of the Brexit initiative will not materialize and there is a growing consensus that even if the UK does experience some challenges in the post-Brexit era, things are not doing to be as bad as predicted. To gain a better understanding of what has already happened and what experts predict for the future, this essay on brexit provides an overview of the Brexit referendum, a summary of the events that have followed its approval by UK voters and a summary of the research and important findings concerning the future for the UK and the EU in the conclusion. Thesis Statement To gain a better understanding of what has already happened and what experts predict for the future, this essay provides an overview of the Brexit referendum, a summary of the events that have followed its approval by UK voters and a summary of the research and important findings concerning the future for the UK and the EU in the conclusion. Title:   Brexit a Half Year Later Introduction It has been more than 9  months since 51.9% of the voters in the United Kingdom elected to leave the European Union (EU) in the now-famous â€Å"Brexit† referendum and in spite what some critics said at the time, the sky has not fallen. Despite some initial negative fallout and jittery reactions from many EU member-states, things appear to have resumed some semblance of normalcy and some economic indicators have even improved. To determine what has happened and what the future holds for the UK, this paper reviews the relevant literature to provide a brief overview of the Brexit referendum followed by recent events that have followed its approval by UK voters. Finally, a summary of the research and important findings concerning the future for the UK and the EU are provided in the conclusion. Background and Overview When the results of the Brexit vote became known on June 23, 2016, the reaction on the part of UK voters and the EU was first a mixture of shock, dismay, fear and even anger (Jasper, 2016). For example, some representative articles and headlines that followed the Brexit vote include:   Brexit earthquake has happened, and the rubble will take years to clear†; â€Å"The Week Britains Brexit Earthquake Shook The World; â€Å"Brexit economic shock equivalent to natural disaster, says OECD†; â€Å"Earthquake in Europe and â€Å"Brexit An Earthquake† (as cited in Jasper, 2016, p. 17). After the dust actually settled and the nervous reactions to the Brexit vote turned to grudging acceptance, many economic indicators in the UK including employment have returned to their pre-Brexit levels and in some cases have since exceeded them as discussed further below. Immediate aftereffects of the Brexit vote The â€Å"earthquake† predicted by many analysts for the UK post-Brexit has simply not materialized. In this regard, Halligan (2016) emphasizes that: Theres very little sign of the predicted post-Brexit economic crisis. To the shock of many not least business titans who bankrolled the Remain campaign the instant collapse doesnt seem to be happening. The UK economy is, for now at least, taking Brexit in its stride. (p. 3)   Indeed, in the month following the Brexit vote, there were more than 150,000 more job listings in the UK than in the same month in 2015 (Halligan, 2016). Likewise, Bowler (2017) agrees that the negative economic impact predicted by many analysts post-Brexit has not materialized. For example, Bowler points out that, â€Å"Before the referendum last June, many economists produced gloomy forecasts which have since been proved wrong. Consumers confidence has not suffered, and by and large, things have gone on as before† (para. 4).. Another reason for the return to relative normalcy in the UK and EU has been the growing realization that the UK is not going to withdraw from the EU anytime soon. Despite the results of the Brexit referendum, the UK parliament is not legally required to automatically trigger Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty to begin formal proceedings for withdrawal from the EU and the only pressure do to so will come from the mandate of the referendum vote. For instance, Brooks (2016) emphasizes that, â€Å"In law, a referendum result is advisory on Parliament but not binding. Parliament need do nothing at all legally† (p. 2). In addition, even assuming that a revocation initiative does not overturn the Brexit referendum, it will likely be years and perhaps even a decade or more before all of the negotiations to fully effect the UK’s withdrawal from the EU. Indeed, according to Castle (2016), the trade negotiations that are involved in the Brexit initiative are highly complex and conte ntious and resolving these issues may require another decade with no guarantee of a successful outcome. Many authorities agree, though, that the stakes are too high for the EU to adopt an uncompromising or belligerent approach to post-Brexit trade negotiations with the UK. As Hodges (2017) recently pointed out: Its entirely conceivable that a soft Brexit, in which Britain maintains many of our existing EU trading and regulatory relationships, could be made to work. Its even possible that, with a bit of luck and skilful negotiation, a hard Brexit, involving a much looser trading framework, could also be sustainable. (2017, p. 41) As can be readily discerned from the data shown in Figure 1 below, the UK’s retail sales index has experienced gains in the post-Brexit climate: Figure 1. Retail sales index: 2006-2017 Source: Hodges, 2017 Likewise, another reason for the return of calm to the European continent has been the recognition that despite its importance to the EU, the loss of the UK is not its death knell. Indeed, the EU has become a formidable economic entity in its own right and it is reasonable to suggest that member-states that share the continent overwhelmingly view the arrangement as being in their best interests. In this regard, Headley (2016) emphasizes that, â€Å"Even after Britains departure, the remaining European Union of 27 members, added to the European Economic Area (Norway, Iceland, Lichtenstein) and the special arrangements with Switzerland, will still be the worlds largest economic entity† (p. 8). What the future holds Taken together, it is clear that both the EU and the UK will survive the Brexit referendum and both will perhaps even prosper as a result (Headley, 2016). It is also clear, though, that when and if the UK finalizes its withdrawal from the EU, both will be compelled to make substantive changes, or as Headley (2016) puts it, to â€Å"reinvent themselves† (p. 11). While the EU will remain the largest economic entity in the world for the foreseeable future, though, the outlook for the UK is less clear. While it will remain an important member of NATO and close military ally of the U.S., the UK is faced with forging a new identity that will by need be fundamentally different than what many citizens have known all their lives. For instance, according to Brooks (2016), â€Å"Britain must do much more than leave it must figure out what it will be† (p. 27). Fortunately for the UK, the enormous time and effort spent in formulating the wide range of laws and policies that have contributed to the EU’s success to date also mean that the UK can freely pick and choose what it likes best from the lot and adapt them for its own unique circumstances. In this regard, Brooks (2016) concludes that, â€Å"Weve been promised the good laws will stay but be made British and the bad ones will go† (p. 27). Notwithstanding the promise this oppo rtunity holds for the UK, this process too will take a significant amount of time and the outcome for the UK remains less certain today (Brooks, 2016). Conclusion The results of the Brexit referendum on June 23, 2016 confounded analysts and pundits who confidently but inaccurately predicted that voters in the UK would never leave the security of the European Union. The research showed, though, that despite some initial economic fallout as a result of the vote, things have returned to their pre-Brexit levels and some economic indicators have even improved. Some of the reasons for this return to normalcy include the amount of time that will be required to formally effect the UK’s withdrawal from the EU and the growing realization on the part of UK voters that the outcome can actually benefit them given enough time and attention to post-Brexit issues, including most especially the selection of which EU laws and policies will remain in place. We hope this example Brexit essay  will provide you with a template or guideline in helping you write your own paper on this topic.   You are free to use any information, sources, or topics, titles, or ideas provided in this essay as long as you properly cite the information in your paper and on your reference page. Works Cited /  Sources Bowler, T. (2017, March 28). How has the economy fared since the Brexit vote? BBC News. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/business-36956418. Brooks, T. (2016, September 9). So Brexit means Brexit, does it? I dont think so. The Journal (Newcastle, England), 27. Castle, S. (2016, December 15). Brexit talks could stretch 10 years, British official warns. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/15/world/europe/ brexit-talks-could-stretch-10-years-british-official-warns.html?_r=0. Halligan, L. (2016, July 23). The Brexit bust that wasnt. The Spectator, 3. Headley, S. (2016, September-October). Europe after the British exit: Demise or reinvention? New Zealand International Review, 41(5), 7-11. Hodges, D. Kamikaze Brexit; DAN HODGES POLITICAL COMMENTATOR OF THE YEAR Brace Yourselves! Leadsom and Her Ultras Have Been Handed the Controls and Were Zooming towards A. Contributors: Not available. Newspaper title: The Mail on Sunday (London, England). Publication date: March 26, 2017. Page number: 41. Jasper, W. F. (2016, August 8). Brexit: Rejecting globalism. The New American, 32(15), 17-21.

Compare and Contrast ideologies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Networking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Control in Training - Essay Example It is possible to distinguish three types of control: (1) routine control (from lecture to lecture), (2) monitoring (during the course) and (3) control of the skills acquired at the end of the course. It is possible to control the level of skills and personal development, compare skills of employees with certain standards or skills development of other employees (Truelove, 1995). During the training course, it is essential to provide continuing direct attention to learning process and skills of the trainees. In the sense that the supervisor will be attempting to sustain the performance of these employees, the intent will be task-related. However, the actions will be largely employee-oriented in nature and manner; the supervisor will be encouraging, reinforcing, patient, willing to listen. At this stage, the task of the manager is to support trainees and correct their actions if necessary. The instilling of standards and confidence (accompanying the skill development) during training is important for both the organization and employees. The role of the trainers is to develop certain skills and knowledge according to standards and new requirements. Employees with high self-esteem and high need for achievement, for example, appear to need feedback that gives information related to competency and control over the task.

Anorexia Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Anorexia - Research Paper Example exia is caused by a variety of different factors, including biology, sociological considerations and psychological adjustment patterns that are often driven by youth historical experiences in society and with family members. It is also known to be caused by media representation of what constitutes an ideal form for men and women which alters a person’s self-esteem levels and sense of self-worth in a social context. Such causes of the disease are known to be attributed to body dysmorphia, an unreasonable and rather perverse sense of the self as it pertains to body image as well as youth caregiver attachment problem (to name only two potential causes). Treatment options include cognitive behavioral therapy, clinical interventions, family therapy, support groups, pharmaceuticals, and even more radical psychotherapy methodologies. Hence, there are potential solutions that can reduce prevalence of this mental disorder with many of the aforementioned treatment options sustaining credible and sometimes substantial recovery and success rates. The goal of treatment, as indicated by research, is to change the distorted sense of self that is common with anorexia and improve cognition patterns to develop healthier eating and coping strategies. Anorexia Nervosa is a variety of eating disorder in which the individual radically curbs their food intake and maintains an unreasonable and rather groundless terror of weight gain. It is usually accomplished with a maladjusted viewpoint about their bodies. Anorexia is characterized by extreme weight loss. People who maintain this mental illness begin an extreme regulation of dietary consumption which leads to a variety of health problems. Anorexia is a common eating disorder that affects women and men, however its prevalence is most widespread in the female population. Those that have been diagnosed with anorexia often maintain an irrational obsession with maintaining a thin body figure and become preoccupied and often fanatical

PAPER 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

PAPER 2 - Essay Example These texts highlight deficiencies within the society with gender inequalities as the issue and to create awareness to the readers. Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s Herland Charlotte Perkins Gilman is an American writer who explored the feminist utopia using her fictional novella â€Å"Herland†. Gilman created an imaginary society occupied by just women, with no need for men. They use parthenogenesis to produce their daughters and portray a superior morality. This society that was women-centered advocated for industriousness as well as motherhood and avoided approaches to life that perpetrated individualistic competitions. She figured out that this society would be appropriate for women to relate with each other in a more cooperative manner since there would be no necessity to dominate one another. In this novella Gilman tends to nurture and merge the finest feminine virtues with the finest masculine virtues together as a unity to make up human virtue. According to Gilman, fo r a society to be virtuous, it should use her fictional utopian society of Herland as an exemplary model. She believed that women have no reason to be slaves to their fellow humans by dedicating their lives to please them when they can survive on their own without the men and even lead better lives. Through the eyes of Gilman, our narrator, we get the view point of the men. She uses three men to show us their perspective about women. Gilman reverses the typical women stereotypes completely and that everything that was previously considered in terms of masculine or feminine standards was done away with. Here women wore cloths that were lesser provocative and that advocated for convenience and comfort. They cut their hair short and had more muscular bodies. They were neither flirtatious nor shy. They practically needed no men to live. They schooled, built, did farming and moreover mothered hence depended on no one but themselves. The women of Herland did not recognize gender biases, a raging phenomenon in the world. They lived in harmony and togetherness (Allen 102). Gilman as well uses Jeff to stand for a feminist voice and uses Terry to stand for the male’s voice. Jeff felt like women were creatures that deserved to be protected as well as served whereas Terry regarded them as creatures to be conquered and by all means be won. She provides a complementary view on the women as well as their roles at her time. She displays her admiration on the fact that women are independent of men. Gilman proceeds to promote the equality of women to men but she doesn’t stop there, she also portrays them as being superior compared to men. This is so unlikely in the world where Jeff and the other men came from. Here they are presented as the weaker ones and the women are much strong and virtuous. The narrator conveys the women to be smarter and kinder unlike the men. Smart in that although they are isolated from the rest they still survive. They also teach men like any other student. They bred-out and did away with segments of nature that stained their society in any way for instance dogs and some butterfly species. In addition they also bred-out defiant or less

Human resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Human resources - Essay Example The assessment procedures require standardisation in order to present a fair platform for all interested participants. As such, test design and validation is required when creating a standardised assessment process. Test design and validation are key principles in the assessment process during selection of personnel that ensure relevance of tests been administered. In essence, test validation highlights the process of establishing relations between the test administered and the job in question. The validity of a test is critical when selecting a test as it refers to the characteristic being measured and how well the test produces the best results. Validity indicates how reliable the results yielded are in line with the purpose of the test as well as ensuring relevance of the assessment process. What are the key performance dimensions of the instructor who is teaching this course? In your opinion, what should they be? There are three main methods of ensuring validation in assessments procedures and they include criterion-related validity, content-related validity, and construct-related validity. Criterion-related validity provides data indicating statistical relationship between test performance and key job factors, which provides predictive information on work behaviour. In this case, an individual who performs well in such tests is bound to perform better in the job than someone who yielded low scores. Content-related validity produces evidence that illustrates the composition of the test demonstrates crucial behaviour in relation to the job. The test dwells on requirements and qualifications of an individual for the desired position. For instance, fire fighters must demonstrate their physical ability in stressful situations and reflect minimum strength required to perform safety procedures associated with their line of work. Finally, construct-related validity refers to the assessment of individual traits such as personality and core values that are critical in delivery on the job. For instance, aspiring candidates for the position of customer care personnel should exercise tolerance by default in order to provide efficiently required information to irate customers. Why are clear job specifications important? What are the costs of imprecise specifications? Provide an example The importance of indicating clear job specification in any organisation cannot be overemphasised as it is of critical value to all. Compiling of job descriptions lies squarely within the human resource manager, who is charged with the role of hiring personnel based on tasks to be carried out in the organisation. A clear-cut description highlights what the organisation expects from each employee as it entails the details of personnel roles and duties. This saves time and resources that could have been otherwise lost in the confusion created by mixed roles and disorganisation within the company. As such, effective job descriptions provide efficient communication chan nels within an organisation since every employee is aware of their role. Similarly, the employees become aware of the company’s mission and vision, as well as explaining how each of them fits into the organisation’s future. Moreover, clear job specifications help in weeding out unqualified applicants while ensuring the recruitment of qualified personnel. This acts to save the organisation a significant amount of money and thus boosts productivity. From a legal point of

Rigid journey Essay Example for Free

Rigid journey Essay It was a â€Å"rigid journey† that started with two voices and that ended with one. One is the voice of meaningless modernity. Disjointed and syncopated, this voice hopes to fit in with the norm, tirelessly finding meaning through misconstrued words. The other is the voice of an ailing past as it struggles to keep up with the present. It is the words of fable and myth, lost in the humdrum of everyday life. Coming in contact through an unexpected dialogue, these two voices collide but, further on, reveal their similarities in order to address the issues of their looming futures. Jonathan Safran Foer’s critically-successful debut novel Everything is Illuminated relishes in these two voices, speaking to its readers in dual tones as a metaphor of the different perspectives that arise from a problem of identity that epitomizes this generation: a generation fraught by issues brought about by concerns of industry, capitalism, and materialism. Part memoir, part travelogue, this novel primarily chronicles the travels of Jonathan Foer, a young Jewish-American writer of the same name as the author, who attempts to research his grandfather’s life in Ukraine and discover the woman who had saved him from apparent execution in the hands of Nazi soldiers. To make his trip remotely easier, he employs the help of Heritage Tours, a tour company that specializes in aiding Jewish-Americans retrace their roots in the Old Country. His guide and translator for this trip is Alex Perchov, a Ukrainian of the same age who is utterly enraptured by the American culture that reaching the State’s worshipped shores and becoming an accountant is all he has ever dreamed about. Along with the ride are Alex’s Grandfather, their supposedly blind driver, and his â€Å"seeing-eye bitch† Sammy Davis Junior, Junior. But, Foer, the author, also incorporates a second and third narrative amidst this backdrop of identity-searching. One, told in Jonathan’s voice, tells the story of his Grandfather’s shtetl or town, TrachimBrod, its fabled rise and evident fall during World War II. We can initially perceive the novel as a seeming coming-of-age story that finds its core in the retelling of the happenings of the Holocaust and its evident impact on its Jewish survivors and their kin. But, it also echoes of the capitalist ideologies that define our era and how it has come to mold our youth, as seen through the depiction of Jonathan and Alex. With this in mind, this paper aims to create an understanding of the hegemony within the text through the use of Marxist literary criticism. An Overview of Marxism and the Communist Manifesto At the heart of Marxism lies the struggle between classes, a definitive clash of ideologies brought about by the fight over the right of power. It is primarily a critique of the current Industrial Age society, wherein an apparent discrepancy between the growing bourgeois class and the working class began to be noticeable. Promulgated by Karl Marx in the early nineteenth century, Marxism finds its roots in the analysis of the source of power, the base of power, within a society and how this social class determines the course of production within a society (Marx and Engels 1848). Heralded as the core ideology of Communism, it is a politically-driven social theory that deems to see that the proletariat be considered a class, that the reigning bourgeois be overthrown, and that political power should be reverted to the proletariat (Marx, Engels, and Jones 15). Applied to literature, Marxism becomes a critique of the social structures and the point of authority found in the text, as concocted by the writer’s own perceptions of the history of class within the novel. The Communist â€Å"bible†, Karl Marx’s Communist Manifesto, co-written by Frederick Engels, calls the proletariat to arms in what they see as a social revolution unlike any other. They deem that Capitalist rulings of the working class as exploitative, seeing these people merely as dispensable commodity to yield production. They deem the bourgeoisie as state of â€Å"the abolition of individuality and freedom (22). † They narrate series of possible events to the dissolution of the bourgeoisie that would mean the rise of the proletariat and the erasure of any other remnants of the feudalist system (Marx and Engels 17). Over-all, it is deemed that the only answer to a social revolution is the forcible overthrow of the present reigning base of power, the denouncement of past social conditions, and the creation of a strong network of representative that would protect the individual rights of working men and women. A Dichotomy of Roles What makes Foer’s novel a definite stand-out in the literary scene is its experimentation with form and its boundless potentials. For his novel, he follows three narratives as told by the two primary characters of the text, Jonathan and Alex. Placed in the context of Marxism, there is an evident inner struggle between the two characters that is representative of their own social statuses and how they manage to deal with the issues specific to it. According to Marx’s groundbreaking treatise, â€Å"society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes facing each other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat (Marx and Engels 9). † Although, most may deem this social division as outdated, it still reveals much about our current social structure that expected. In our globalized view, such structure can now be attributed to cultures dominating over each other, cultures that manipulate the flow of international relations given the power they retain through their economic superiority—a system that Marx had initially suspected. As with today’s society, American culture (though flailing amidst the rise of new economic powers) remains the power base and controls much of the world’s economic activity, and hence, becomes the source of all human institutions and ideologies, or what Marx calls, the superstructure. With this power behind them, the base is able to influence the direction that society is driven to, characterizing each element as they see fit. Evident in the novel is undisputed hegemony of American culture as presented through the character of Alex. Ensnared by the allure of money and progress, Alex is the quintessential American â€Å"wanna be†. He is driven to create an image of himself that is allegedly reminiscent of this culture: a womanizer, an excessive spender, a big talker. Evidence of this fascination with American culture can also be read in page 69 wherein Alex speaks with Jonathan over dinner and bombards him with questions about American life: â€Å"Are there good accounting schools? Are there Negro accountants? How much is the coffee there (Foer 69)? † All the answers elicit an excitement for this prevailing culture, all the more pushing Alex to value it more than he does his own. In a letter to Jonathan written purportedly after the his visit to Ukraine, he mentions that he is saving up to go to the States, and that in order to save money (despite his Father’s belief that he isn’t so), he stays at the beach and just thinks. He thinks that Jonathan is so lucky (52). These ideas of American culture, the American Dream, are in fact disseminated through the film medium as presented in the text when Alex says: â€Å"I dig American movies (2). † It is, in essence, a diluted imagery of what American culture is like as shown through the limited capacity of film. Gone are seemingly politically correct ideologies and from the vantage point of Alex’s restricted viewpoint of American culture we see the flaws of a race and gender divided structure. It is also necessary to note the importance of the Alex’s use of language in the text. His language is a mix of profundity and slang in an attempt to sound as American as possible, but failing miserably to communicate what he actually means in the process. His misconstrued language echoes the attempt of the working class to attain a level of equality with the bourgeois (American culture), but unsuccessfully doing so because the line that separates the two arenas can never be crossed. Alex’s character, in this sense, epitomizes the proletariat desire to obtain an amount of power (how miniscule) it might be from the dominating bourgeois by inculcating themselves within a culture created by the elite. When he took on the role of translate for Jonathan, Alex believed it to be an â€Å"unordinary (Foer 2)† experience. By taking on this Americanized persona, Alex believes he is setting himself apart from a family of three Alex’s, from his own culture. He yearns to â€Å"depart† from his class and seek a brighter one in another. But, I believe, that this is the tragedy of Alex. He deems to create for himself a new personality, an individuality, but through the acceptance of another ideological structure that might even be stronger and far more dangerous than the one he opts to leave behind. This is, as what Marx says, is a sense of false consciousness (Eagleton 103). â€Å"People are conditioned by the material world to accept certain ideas and beliefs as objective fact. They misunderstand their position and the meaning of their position. (Progreba 2). † On the other hand, we see Jonathan who departs from the States and its culture to find his roots in Ukraine. Armed with the picture of his grandfather and the picture of the woman who rescued him, he embarks on a journey to understand his muddled identity. Whereas, Alex looks at the American culture as one that would finally define him, Jonathan temporarily denounces it and searches for it in his history. This is evident in his chronicle of the history of his grandfather’s little village. But, similar to Alex, he finds fascination in a culture other than his own and looks up to it as a medium to understand his own identity. By narrating the events that led to the destruction of the village, from its establishment and his grandfather, Safran’s, rescue from the Nazis, Jonathan communicates with his past and forms a dialogue with it. For both young men, this search for identity traces itself to their yearning to reclaim their place in a society that alienates them. According to Marxist theory, the capitalist society alienates people in three different levels: first, the worker is alienated from what he produces; second, the worker is alienated from himself; and third, the worker is alienated from society. â€Å"The work of the proletarians has lost all their individual character, and consequently all charm for the workman. He becomes an appendage of the machine, and it is only the most simple, most monotonous, and most easily acquired knack that is required of him (Marx and Engels 14). † Jonathan, who has taken a leave of absence from university, finds himself at a loss regarding his future goals in life, some of which are imposed on him by the requirements of his social circle: fame and fortune. By following these, he would have to let go of his roots, of his own identity, and deliver products as what society needs of him. Hence, he finds his travel to Ukraine an opportunity for soul-searching, a method to deliver himself from the constraints of social responsibilities and discover his own potential as a person. When Alex questions Jonathan about his yearnings to be a writer, Jonathan answers him half-heartedly, as if questioning even his own decision to take on this career (Foer 69). But, by the middle of the novel, as implied in one of Alex’s letters to Jonathan, he had gone on back to university to pursue this career, perhaps already with an inkling of his own identity discovered during his visit in Ukraine. Alex, on the other hand, seeks deliverance in American culture. He detests his Father who bullies him and his â€Å"miniature† brother, Little Igor. He yearns to separate himself from this abusive authority and find solace in a culture that is â€Å"free† and â€Å"progressive†. We can view his Father and their travel company in the Marxist context as the Capitalist. Their company, Heritage Tours, having been a family business for three generations ties Alex intensely to the family that he hopes to leave behind. As his mother had said, she is extremely proud that her son had decided to taking the responsibility of acting as a guide for the â€Å"Jewish boy† instead of wallowing around doing nothing and wasting money (Foer 2). Marxist theory also expands on the notion of a â€Å"counter-hegemonic† culture that should be developed in order to retaliate against the prevailing social norms as promulgated by the ruling class. Essentially, the novel revolves around this, as with any text that centers on a search for identity and individuality. Alex and Jonathan both are at war with their societies which is why they seek to find it another, whether in more direct forms (like Jonathan’s) or discreetly (like Alex’s). There remains, in the story of these two individuals, a definite struggle to fight against hegemony and the norm. Conclusion The third narrative, as we have mentioned, are letters from Alex to Jonathan, still written in the same manner as he had spoken to us in his usual narrative. These letters, from mere discussion of their positions in life finally show the kind of relationship these two young men are able to foster. They are the acceptance of their brotherhood amidst the flurry of modern life, amidst the demands of their social classes and their inherent responsibilities. But, most importantly, as the novel proves, it serves as an insight into a quiet counter-revolution that prevails today. Works Cited: Eagleton, Terry. Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Literary Theory. William Clowes Ltd. : Suffolk, Great Britain. 2006 Foer, Jonathan Safran. Everything is Illuminated. Houghton Mifflin Books: New York, New York. 2002 Jones, Gareth Stedman. â€Å"Introduction. † The Communist Manifesto. Penguin Books Ltd. : USA, 1967 Marx, Karl and Frederick Engels. â€Å"The Communist Manifesto. † Socialist Labor Party of America. 2006. Retrieved from http://www. marxism. net/pdf/marx/comm_man. pdf